A/HRC/45/12 COVID-19, in particular with regard to substandard living conditions, pollution, unhealthy working environments, lack of access to treatment, and unaffordable insurance coverage.39 50. Underlying health conditions are in many respects the manifestation of deep-rooted and multifaceted discrimination faced by racial 40 and ethnic minorities and other marginalized groups, including people of African, Asian, and Hispanic descent and indigenous peoples.41 For example, racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to live in poverty and bear the burden of health conditions such as respiratory illnesses, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, chronic stress and conditions requiring immunosuppressant treatment. The Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent has stated that the intersections of race with gender, disability, class, and sexual orientation and gender identity further add to these complexities. In States without universal health care, including high-income countries, people of African descent face significant and disproportionate barriers in accessing care.42 51. The intersectionality of exposure to pollution, racial discrimination and economic inequalities is clear. The effects of this intersectionality, fuelled by widespread environmental injustice and racism, are predictable and preventable elements of the COVID-19 pandemic. Among some racial and ethnic minority groups, evidence points to higher rates of hospitalization or death from COVID-19. In one country, for example, as at 18 August 2020, age-adjusted hospitalization rates were highest among minorities – up to five times higher than the average, in one category of minorities. 43 In some countries, the highest levels of contagions and deaths from COVID-19 are found among migrants, given, among other things, their lack of access to medical care.44 2. Workers 52. Poor and minority communities are at higher risk of death from the COVID-19 virus not only because of exposure where they live, but also because of greater exposure to the virus and hazardous substances at work. Health-care, food and other essential workers have been selflessly performing their jobs for society. Tragically, these risks were increased by the irresponsible conduct of some businesses and States. Many such workers were required to be present every day at work despite the pandemic, without adequate protection from exposure or access to paid sick leave. Far too often, it was lower-paid and minority workers who risked their lives during the pandemic to serve others and produce basic goods and services. 53. Every worker has a right to be protected from exposure to the COVID-19 virus and other hazardous substances at work. States have a duty to respect, protect and fulfil the right of every worker to safe and healthy working conditions, and businesses have corresponding responsibilities. 45 Every worker is essential. 46 No one should be deprived of his or her human rights because of the work he or she performs, nor should anyone feel forced to work in conditions that unnecessarily endanger health, out of fear of losing a job or a pay check. 54. Some national and multinational business enterprises, including e-commerce giants, vegetable and meat packers and mining industry actors, have been reproached for exerting 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 12 See www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25927&LangID=E and www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?LangID=E&NewsID=25768. See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25776&LangID=E. See, for example, www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?LangID=E& NewsID=25768. Ibid. See www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/racial-ethnic-minorities.html; www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/covid-data/investigations-discovery/hospitalization-death-byrace-ethnicity.html. See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Migration/CMWSPMJointGuidanceNoteCOVID19Migrants.pdf. See Human Rights Council resolution 42/21. See also A/74/480 and the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, principle 1. See www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25892&LangID=E.