A/HRC/6/6 page 7 11. Finally, a third form of religious discrimination concerns cases of physical violence. These include individual acts of aggression that consist of isolated events, often on the part of extremist groups or persons. However, on a number of occasions these individual acts reflect the ideological context that is in place, in particular when other forms of discrimination are present, including institutionalized discriminatory practices. Furthermore, physical violence may also lead to large-scale religious violence such as massacres and pogroms. 12. These expressions of religious hatred are not mutually exclusive, but rather represent different facets of a broad phenomenon. In most cases of religious hatred and discrimination, each of these forms of discrimination reinforces the others, in what becomes the vicious cycle of discrimination and violence that can be seen in various conflict settings around the world. 13. Although the concepts and examples mentioned in the paragraphs below relate to the issue of discrimination in general, a more particular focus on defamation of religions per se is central to the analysis of religious discrimination. Defamation provides the intellectual justification and legitimizing discourse that support all forms of discrimination. Without it, institutionalized and physical violence cannot be sustained. When defamatory discourse meets with enabling political, intellectual and media-related local conditions, including socio-economic exclusion of religious minorities, it resonates in society and gains strength. Therefore, fighting religious discrimination in general requires a strong focus on preventing the direct and indirect consequences of defamation of religions, including its role in legitimizing racist and discriminatory discourse. 14. While it is true that acts of defamation of religions are common in various regions of the world, each of these acts demonstrates specific characteristics. In the sections below, the Special Rapporteur provides an overall view of the phenomenon of defamation of religions and examines its various forms, including Islamophobia, anti-Semitism and Christianophobia. After analysing these particular forms of religious discrimination, he returns to the question of the universality of the fight against discrimination. A. Islamophobia 15. Islamophobia is a growing phenomenon and a matter of concern in the aftermath of the events of 11 September 2001. Ongoing instability in the Middle East at large, particularly in Iraq, and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, along with the global war on terror have contributed to the rise of Islamophobia. In the typical expression of Islamophobia, Muslims are seen as opposed to so-called Western values and often portrayed as enemies and a threat to national values and social cohesion. Ensuing is a discourse that in many cases persuades Muslims living abroad to “assimilate” in local cultures, implicitly or explicitly requesting them to abandon their cultural and religious heritage and even their visibility. 16. These trends, along with the overarching climate of widespread and systematic suspicion against Muslims, conduce to all sorts of discrimination and intolerance, ranging from individual acts such as verbal aggressions and stereotyping to physical violence and institutionalized discrimination at large, including barriers to adequate housing, schooling, employment and, more generally, racial profiling. In the realm of freedom of religion or belief, one notices that in some regions, particularly in Europe, Muslims face growing difficulties to establish places of worship