Sexual and gender-based violence in Myanmar and the gendered impact of its ethnic conflicts in English ethnic minorities. Sexual violence is an outcome of a larger problem of gender inequality and the lack of rule of law. This is not unique to Myanmar. Worldwide, there is a direct correlation between gender inequality and gender violence. Women are more likely to experience violence in countries with high gender inequality. 91 But the extent of gender inequality in Myanmar makes it especially prone to sexual and gender-based violence. Myanmar ranks 148 of 189 countries in the United Nations’ Gender Inequality Index. 92 49. Notwithstanding the prominence of Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, the State Counsellor, the place of women in Myanmar society is generally considered limited. Apart from the State Counsellor, men are the predominant national level decision-makers, including within the Tatmadaw and as the public face of the Government. 93 Military rule between 1962 and 2011 all but banished women from positions of authority, and the military itself had no women in leadership roles.94 While some improvements have been made since 2014 to include women within the Tatmadaw, to date only 12 out of 166 Tatmadaw parliamentary seats are occupied by women.95 50. In a recent meeting of the Security Council’s Informal Experts Group on Women, Peace and Security, the Secretary-General’s Special Envoy on Myanmar, Ms. SchranerBurgener noted that, the overwhelming majority of her interlocutors at the central, regional and local levels in Myanmar are men, partly due to the predominance of military and religious actors in positions of leadership and their disproportionate role in public life and decision-making about peace and security issues in particular. 96 51. While there is close to parity with respect to literacy rates between men and women and within formal education,97 the number of women who participate in the formal work force is just over half the number of men, and those who do, earn less than men. 98 This reflects the traditional gender roles that have been assigned to men and women in Myanmar. An example of this is the 2008 Myanmar Constitution that makes repeated references to women as mothers, reinforcing gender stereotypes. 99 52. Impunity for sexual and gender-based violence in Myanmar is exacerbated by underlying gender inequality. In 2008, the CEDAW Committee expressed concern that domestic and sexual violence in Myanmar was widespread and socially legitimised, while being accompanied by a culture of silence and impunity. The CEDAW Committee further noted that such cases are often underreported,100 entrenching impunity and the 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 14 See for e.g., L. Heise, A. Kotsadam, “Cross-national and multilevel correlates of partner violence: an analysis of data from population-based surveys”, Lancet Glob Health, vol 3, June 2015. UNDP Gender Inequality Index (2018). S/2019/591, p.3; Women occupied 4.6% of directly elected seats in all levels of Parliament in 2012— an increase from 1.9% in the First Legislative Assembly of 1974. This has now increased to 12.9% of directly elected seats in all levels of Parliament; Gender Equality and Women’s Rights in Myanmar, UNDP, ADB, UNFPA, UN Women (2016). Background note for the Security Council’s Informal Experts Group on Women, Peace and Security, Myanmar, 4 June 2019. In total, there are 64 women holding seats in both houses of Parliament, of a total of 664 seats. S/2019/591. For the age group of persons 15 years and older, female literacy in 2015 was estimated at 86.9% and male literacy at 92.0%: However, there are continuing concerns about retention rates, performance levels of certain categories of children especially in secondary school, and the quality and gender sensitivity of education. Impressive national data on female education mask economic, regional, and urban–rural disparities; Myanmar Gender Situation Analysis (2016) Asian Development Bank, UNDP, UNFPA, UN Women. In education, women are required to achieve higher test scores than men to be admitted into professional schools such as medicine and engineering; Goldman School of Public Policy, University of California, Berkeley, The Global Justice Center, Vulnerable Women, Vulnerable Land, Gender Dimensions of Land Grabbing in Myanmar (May 2017). According to the 2014 census data, the labour force participation rate for persons aged 15 years and older is 63.4% (81.7% for men and 47.1% for women); for persons aged 15–64 years, it is 67% (85.2% for men and 50.5% for women); Gender Equality and Women’s Rights in Myanmar, UNDP, ADB, UNFPA, UN Women (2016). CEDAW/C/MMR/CO/3, para. 10. CEDAW/C/MMR/CO/3, para. 22.