A/HRC/29/25 countries but does not share in the benefits of those resources because of inadequate governance. More than 80 per cent of the 58 resource-rich countries in the Resource Governance Index fail to meet satisfactory governance standards. 9. Citizen engagement in the natural resources sector is notoriously difficult, with some sectors, such as oil, gas and mining, presenting heightened risks of human rights abuses because they are especially lucrative. The State plays a significant role in regulating access to exploitation opportunities. Secrecy cloaks decision-making processes and outcomes; there is a lack of mechanisms through which interested parties may express their concerns; discussions are often highly technical; and, above all, the financial stakes are often massive. This opaque and lucrative environment presents ideal conditions for corruption to thrive, a challenge with which many resource-rich countries have to contend. 10. The Special Rapporteur believes that the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association play a key role in opening up spaces and opportunities for genuine and effective engagement by civil society in decision-making processes across the spectrum of natural resource exploitation activities. These rights help foster increased transparency and accountability in the exploitation of resources and are basic prerequisites for the ultimate goal of securing substantive rights. Peaceful assembly and association rights can facilitate constructive dialogue, which is necessary given the shared interests and sometimes competing priorities that are intrinsic to exploiting natural resources. 11. When the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association are restricted contrary to international human rights law standards, questions automatically arise as to how genuine consultation processes or decisions are and how valid is the expression of free, prior and informed consent of affected parties. While restricting these rights in order to streamline resource exploitation may seem tempting to States and corporations8 in the short term, it can be costly in the long run and cause irrevocable damage. As the Special Rapporteur has previously noted (see A/HRC/26/29, para. 26), the failure to provide any outlet for excluded groups to air their grievances can be counterproductive and carry severe consequences. He believes that social conflicts experienced in the context of natural resource exploitation are a stark demonstration of the truth of this statement. 12. The overall political environment in a State can also have a profound impact on the exercise of peaceful assembly and association rights. States that generally do not respect or facilitate those rights are unlikely to be any more accommodating in the context of natural resource exploitation. In fact, the Special Rapporteur believes that the space to exercise peaceful assembly and association rights is often more limited in relation to natural resource exploitation because of the significant impact this sector has on the economies of resource-rich countries, the bottom lines of the enterprises involved and the potential for corruption. Having citizen engagement is, therefore, imperative throughout the decision chain right from the initial stages of the process when exploration potential is determined, through to exploitation activities and investment of revenue.9 The rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association provide the necessary avenues for this engagement. B. Key actors in the natural resource exploitation field 13. International human rights law places the primary obligation for the respect, protection and fulfilment of rights on the State. In the context of natural resource 8 9 6 The terms “corporation”, “company”, “business enterprises” and “private sector” are used generically to refer to for-profit enterprises involved in exploitation operations, even if they are State-owned, unless otherwise indicated. See, e.g., the Natural Resource Charter.