A/HRC/43/39 including ambivalence toward parents, acting out, whining and clinging or crying that may result from anxiety and post-traumatic stress.51 68. Infants and toddlers who witness violence either in their homes or in their community show excessive irritability, immature behaviour, sleep disturbance, emotional distress, fear of being alone and regression in toileting and language. Exposure to trauma, especially violence in the family, interferes with a child’s normal development of trust and later exploratory behaviour, which lead to the development of autonomy.52 69. In recent reports, the presence of symptoms in young children has been noted that is very similar to post-traumatic stress disorder in adults, including repeated re-experiencing of the traumatic event, avoidance, numbing of responsiveness and increased arousal.53 70. Between the ages of 6 and 12, children begin to recognize normative standards and derive their sense of self from comparisons with others around them. Research indicates that the effects of domestic violence on latency-age children can include feelings of guilt and shame, as well as anxiety and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. 54 These children may begin to do poorly in school and peer relationships can suffer. They may lack motivation or have difficulty concentrating owing to intrusive thoughts. Gender socialization is occurring at this age and children are making judgments about fairness and appropriate means to having their needs met.55 71. As with pre-schoolers, school-age children exposed to violence are more likely to show increases in sleep disturbances and are less likely to explore and play freely and show motivation to master their environment.56 They often have difficulty paying attention and concentrating because they are distracted by intrusive thoughts. In addition, school-age children are likely to understand more about the intentionality of the violence and worry about what they could have done to prevent or stop it. 72. Several studies support a link between exposure to community violence and symptoms of anxiety, depression, and aggressive behaviour in school-age children living in violent urban neighbourhoods. 57 In extreme cases of exposure to chronic community violence, school-age children may also exhibit symptoms akin to post-traumatic stress disorder. Some studies have highlighted the link between the witnessing of violence and such symptoms as nightmares, fear of leaving their homes, anxiety and a numbing of affect.58 73. Other studies have reported that school-age children who are exposed to family violence are affected in a similar way to those exposed to community violence. Such children often show a greater frequency of internalizing and externalizing behaviour problems in comparison to children from non-violent families. Overall functioning, attitudes, social competence and school performance are often negatively affected. In addition, studies show that as children get older, those who have been abused and neglected 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 See Ruby Charak and others, “Patterns of childhood maltreatment and intimate partner violence, emotion dysregulation, and mental health symptoms among lesbian, gay, and bisexual emerging adults: a three-step latent class Approach”, Child Abuse & Neglect, vol. 89 (March 2019). Ibid. See Tracie O. Afifi and others, “Examining the relationships between parent experiences and youth self-reports of slapping/spanking: a population-based cross-sectional study”, BMC Public Health, vol. 19 (October 2019). See Joy D. Osofsky, “The impact of violence on children”. See Linda L. Baker and Allison J. Cunningham, “Learning to listen, learning to help: understanding woman abuse and its effects on children”, Centre for Children & Families in the Justice System (2005). See Joy D. Osofsky, “The effects of exposure to violence on young children”, American Psychologist, vol. 50, No. 9 (September 1995). See Deborah Gorman-Smith and Patrick Tolan, “The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth”, Development and Psychopathology, vol. 10, No. 1 (March 1998). See Michele R. Cooley-Quille, Samuel M. Turner and Deborah B. Beidel, “Emotional impact of children’s exposure to community violence: a preliminary study”, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 34, No. 10 (October 1995). 13