A/HRC/31/55 many guises (physical, psychological, economic and social) and may be conditioned by the interaction of multiple factors, including poor governance, absence of the rule of law, an upsurge in religious and political intolerance and fundamentalism, or tensions over development issues. Numerous actors (political, economic, religious, State or non-State) may be involved, by act or omission, in committing violations against defenders. The situation is made more volatile owing to an increase in repressive laws and regulations designed to delegitimize and criminalize human rights activities of defenders, including by restricting their funding or obstructing their activities with burdensome bureaucratic requirements tape. A number of counter-terrorism and security policies introduced by States have posed new challenges to defenders, including new restrictions on their individual freedoms and increasing the risks that they face (ibid., paras. 35-39). 26. The appeals received by the Special Rapporteur point to cases of how the rights and security of defenders have increasingly been disregarded and indeed endangered in numerous ways (see A/HRC/31/55/Add.1). Defenders have been stigmatized, defamed and ostracized. They have been threatened, harassed and subjected to surveillance. They have been assaulted, raped, murdered and made to disappear. They are often subjected to arbitrary arrest and detention, accused and sentenced on false charges. They have been subject to laws and regulations that impinge on their rights, in particular their right to freedom of expression, association and movement. 27. Some activists face greater and more specific risks than others (see A/HRC/16/44, A/HRC/19/55 and A/70/217, paras. 61-77). Defenders who challenge social and cultural norms, do not fit stereotypes and prescribed roles, or who challenge power structures in society – such as defenders of sexual orientation and gender identity rights, women defenders, and defenders working on the rights of minorities and indigenous people – are often stigmatized and subjected to threats and attacks from members of society because of who they are or what they do. Defenders in conflict zones and in occupied territories are also more vulnerable to continuous insecurity and threats. Protection practices must therefore be gender-sensitive and suited to the specific needs and situations of such defenders at risk. 28. The Special Rapporteur is furthermore concerned about the rising challenge posed by the closing of civil society space in many parts of the world. In that context, he notes with apprehension the recent trend of restrictive legislation aimed at curtailing civil society activities and their funding in more than 90 States, and the measures taken to restrict significantly the freedoms of expression, peaceful assembly, association and movement in more than 96 States.3 The causes for the closing of civil society space are complex and may involve a combination of multifaceted factors, such as a global democratic deficit; an increase in the State’s preoccupation with security and the proliferation of counter-terrorism measures; a rise in ideological and religious fundamentalism; or a reaction by the political elite to the power of civil society and its impact on domestic politics. 4 29. The Human Rights Council has equally expressed its concern at the abovementioned developments. In its resolution 27/31, urged States to create and maintain, in law and in practice, a safe and enabling environment in which civil society could operate free from hindrance and insecurity. It also mandated OHCHR to prepare a compilation of practical recommendations for the creation and maintenance of such an environment, and to 3 4 6 See CIVICUS, Civil Society Watch Report, June 2015. CIVICUS and Human Rights Watch, “Closing Civil Society Space” gathering, 14-15 October 2015, summary report.