A/HRC/43/44/Add.2 This situation discourages long-term investments, since obtaining credit from commercial banks is very difficult. 92. Given the gross historical inequalities around access and ownership of land in Zimbabwe that were an aspect of the colonial legacy, pressure arose to find ways to redress the injustices of the past with respect to land ownership. However, to avoid harming the agricultural system and social fabric of the country, the land reform needed to be carried out in a responsible manner. This meant that property rights were not to be contested and needed to be protected, sustainable food production promoted and food security maintained. On the basis of information received, this had not been done, which explains a large portion of the troubles currently experienced by Zimbabwe. Poor agricultural productivity 93. Poor agricultural productivity is one of the root causes of today’s severe food insecurity and poverty in Zimbabwe. 94. General challenges facing smallholder farmers (A1 scheme) include low and erratic rainfall, especially since these lands are non-arable and access to water is very problematic; low and declining soil fertility due to intensive agriculture; low investment; shortages of farm labour; lack of support by public institutions in relation to credit, agricultural extension services, and inadequate and late subsidies; difficulty accessing markets; and overall poor physical and institutional infrastructures. 95. Commercial farmers do well in the tobacco, cut-flower and cotton industries, in contrast to maize. These successful spheres of the country’s economic activity enjoy access to large foreign markets. Maize, however, is confronted by market uncertainties, and is not resistant to droughts. B. Economic sanctions and conditionalities 96. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned about the negative impacts of the economic sanctions and conditionalities imposed on the Government of Zimbabwe and the resulting indirect costs on the overall civilian population, particularly on the right to food. 97. Zimbabwe has been under some form of sanctions since 2001. These targeted measures were imposed in reaction to economic mismanagement, human rights abuses and the way in which the land reform programme had been handled. The original rationale advanced for imposing sanctions on Zimbabwe was that such measures would influence a change in the behaviour and policies of the Government and those that presided over the perceived abuses. The stated intention of these sanctions was to impose restrictions on Zimbabwean individuals and entities that have not upheld the rule of law and have participated in human rights abuses. By limiting access to economic resources for individuals and entities, sanctions would also limit their capacity to sustain repression against their own people. 98. Zimbabwe is under three categories of economic sanctions adopted by the United States of America, which are under the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act, the African Growth and Opportunity Act and the Office of Foreign Asset Control. In 2012, an Economic and Partnership Agreement entered into force between the European Union and Zimbabwe. Under the Agreement, Zimbabwe has privileged tariff- and quota-free access to the European Union market and enjoys a trade surplus with the European Union. In early 2019, the European Union eased its sanction regime against Zimbabwe. 99. Although targeted sanctions for individuals and institutions have been successful in some areas, in many cases, sanctions have had detrimental humanitarian effects. Sanctions against Zimbabwe have worsened the economy and negatively affected livelihoods, particularly the most vulnerable groups, including underprivileged children and mothers. 18 Sanctions contribute to creating a hostile environment for business, international trade and 18 Carren Pindiri, “Taking stock of the impact of sanctions on livelihood and poverty in Zimbabwe”, Defence and Peace Economics (4 September 2019). 15