A/HRC/31/51 46. Moreover, agricultural labour is one of the most dangerous sectors in which to work, particularly for women. It is physically demanding and safety standards are often low or non-existent, and protective equipment and clothing are often designed with men in mind. Women are also most often engaged on a piecework basis, which motivates them to put their health at risk to complete as much work as possible. 49 In Guatemala, allegations of serious breaches of this kind were received by the UN Country Office in 2014, referring to the widespread practice of tying wages to productivity goals, which in turn affected women proportionally more, as they were often forced to work in an unrecognized manner, helping the men reach those goals.50 Women agricultural workers also face rights violations related to their reproductive roles. Exposure to certain chemicals used in agriculture can cause spontaneous abortions, premature births and affect child and infant development through exposure to toxic chemicals in utero and also by way of breastmilk.51 As a result of discriminatory hiring practices, women often hide their pregnancies and employers often hire women on short-term contracts in order to avoid paying maternity benefits. 52 47. Much of the discrimination against women agricultural workers is partly due to the fact that women are absent from supervisory structures and unions. Women involved in unions can face retaliation from their employers. Migrant women workers with precarious immigration status are particularly vulnerable and may prefer not to engage in activities potentially challenging employer-authority, including joining unions and reporting sexual abuse.53 48. The food security of women in farming households and landless labourers is dependent on the adequacy of their wages.54 Rural labour markets are highly gendersegregated and women are more likely to work in low- wage sectors, with inadequate social protection, in temporary, seasonal and casual work, and in activities that require relatively unskilled labour. 49. Many food producers and agricultural labourers are unable to feed their families as commercial farmers “relentlessly” try to save on labour costs through the casualization of the labour force.55 State support intended to ameliorate this problem is also lacking. 50. Similarly, fisherwomen contribute significantly to the work carried out at the different stages within the fishing industry the role they play is largely undervalued. Despite their direct contribution to fishing economy, women fishers are categorically excluded from state-sponsored benefits, facilities and services. 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 12 Op. Cit, TNI/FIAN/IGO/FDCL (2014) Women agricultural workers and the right to adequate nutrition (Heidelberg: FIAN) [insert web link here] at p. 9. A/HRC/28/3/Add.1, para 69-70 IUF. 2007. A Gender Equality Guide for Trade Unionists in the Agriculture, Food, Hotel and Catering Sectors: All for One =One for All. http://www.inclusivecities.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Mather_IUF_All_for_One.pdf (accessed 20.04.2014).At 14. Longley, S. 2013. “Decent Work for Rural Women Workers – Essential for Ensuring their Right to Food” in The Right to Food and Nutrition Watch. 2013: 36-39. http://www.rtfnwatch.org/fileadmin/media/rtfnwatch.org/ENGLISH/pdf/Watch_2013/Watch_2013_PDFs/Watch_2013_eng_WEB_final.pdf (accessed 22.04.2014) at p. 38 Human Rights Watch. 2012. Cultivating Fear: The Vulnerability of Immigrant Farmworkers in the US to Sexual Violence and Sexual Harassment. (May 12 2014). http://www.hrw.org/reports/2012/05/15/cultivating-fear (accessed 20.04.2014). p. 84. Sen, A. (1982). Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Id p. 60.