A/HRC/17/26 must occur on multiple levels, from the individual to the institutional, from the local to the transnational, and in times of peace to times of post-conflict. 3. Structural and institutional discrimination and inequalities 67. The existence of structural and institutional inequalities is the result of various aspects and factors related to discrimination. Discrimination based on race, ethnicity, national origin, ability, socio-economic class, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, culture, tradition and other realities often intensifies acts of violence against women. The acknowledgement of structural aspects and factors of discrimination is necessary for achieving non-discrimination and equality. 68. The inter-gender hierarchy between men and women inherent to patriarchy, together with the intra-gender hierarchy according to which women are constructed and valued, gives rise to the competing impulses of protecting valued women and attacking devalued women. In many cases, a cultural belief of, and value attached to, patriarchal authority, contributes to the gender stratification that exacerbates forms of violence against women. Many traditions promote the notion that the man is the natural head of the household, and when violence occurs in such contexts it can be very difficult for a woman to recognize her abuse as a violation of her rights. Even in cases where she suspects that she has a right not to be abused, there may be little or no community support for her to leave a household where violence is occurring. 69. The operation of inter- and intra-gender hierarchies is made even more complex by communities and States with histories of subjugation either as national minorities or under systems including colonialism, imperialism, apartheid and occupation. Gender-based violence occurs within these larger communities and national narratives often reify violence. These narratives tell stories of overcoming subjugation and asserting the rights of self-determination and self-definition, and may help to explain why the incidence of gender-based violence appears not only to be high, but also to be tolerated in formerly subjugated communities and States. 70. Adopting a holistic model with regards to gender-based violence requires a complex understanding of the ways in which inter- and intra-gender differences exist and the ways in which institutional and structural inequalities exacerbate violence through multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination. 4. Social and/or economic hierarchies among women and between women and men 71. Women are differently positioned within social, economic and cultural hierarchies, which leads to certain women not being able to enjoy universal human rights. In many contexts, racial hierarchies and socio-economic inequalities are but two factors that maintain the privileges of one group of people over other groups. The institutional supports that privilege one class of people over another further perpetuate the ability of one class of women to be advantaged at the cost of another. 72. Within some countries, identifiable subgroups of women are marginalized on the basis of racial, ethnic, religious, cultural and social ideologies and prejudices which reflect disproportionate impact on or justifiable targeting of subgroups of women. For example, women from particular racial and ethnic groups, those with disabilities and poor women, have been the target of forced sterilization and other coercive birth control measures. 73. Material reality is linked to economic and social security and is crucial for both protecting and preventing violence against women. Material reality, such as educational attainment, housing, and access to land, water, food and work, all play a role in how and to what extent women experience violence. Not only does violence against women disproportionately target the most vulnerable women in society in terms of race, ethnic 16