A/HRC/22/72 food, potable water, sanitary services and electricity.99 Zero-hunger programmes can contribute to the reduction of poverty and hunger among such households provided that human rights principles of non-discrimination, transparency, participation and accountability are integrated.100 For female-heads of households who are employed, extended maternity leaves, counselling, financial support should be provided.101 In addition, stigmatization and discrimination against single mothers must be addressed. 102 Rural communities may view divorced or separated women as deviant and deny their rights.103 This means that female-headed households lack the support of both the State and the community. 65. Displaced females heading households require access to public specialized facilities. Social housing should be made available in areas from which they fled or in the areas where they currently reside104 until durable solutions to the question of landlessness are implemented.105 66. The Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences recommends support schemes for female-headed households through the allocation of funds for vocational training, adult literacy, credit plans, creation of incentives for their employment, and assistance with health care and subsidies for housing. 106 F. Case study: temporary or seasonal workers 67. Rural women may need to take up temporary work, often depending on the season; otherwise they remain unemployed or underemployed for long periods of time. 107 In the view of the IOM, women’s decision to migrate, while based on reasons related to food security, escaping traditional gender roles, unsatisfying family relationships and genderbased violence and discrimination, covers an increasing urban demand for domestic workers, health, child and elder care, the agriculture, garment and entertainment industries.108 Due to their low level of qualifications and skills, rural women can only opt for low-skilled employment in the above sectors. 68. The types of jobs they would carry out are found in the sectors of domestic work, nursing, as sex workers, employees in export-oriented garment factories in urban areas and non-traditional export agriculture. Regarding the quality of jobs in terms of human rights 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 CRC, concluding observations, Nicaragua (CRC/C/NIC/CO/4), 2010, para 69; Zambia (CRC/C/15/Add.206), 2003, para. 55; Trinidad and Tobago (CRC/C/TTO/CO/2), 2006, para 58; Report of the Representative of the SecretaryGeneral on the human rights of internally displaced persons, visit to Iraq (A/HRC/16/43/Add.1), 2011, para 70. Special Rapporteur on the right to food (A/HRC/13/33/Add.5), para 83 (f). CRC, concluding observations, Uruguay, (CRC/C/URY/CO/2), 2007, para 39. CRC, concluding observations, Tunisia (CRC/C(TUN/CO/3), 2010, para 44. UN-Women, FAO, IFAD, WFP, Report of the Expert Group Meeting, Enabling Rural Women’s Economic Empowerment: Institutions, Opportunities and Participation (EGM/RW/2011/Report), September 2011, para 37. See also: K. Datta, C. McIlwaine, supra note 81, p. 41. Report of the Representative to the Secretary-General on the human rights of internally displaced persons, mission to Croatia (E/CN.4/2006/71/Add.3), 2005, p. 2. Report of the Representative to the Secretary-General on the human rights of internally displaced persons, mission to Sri Lanka (A/HRC/8/6/Add.4), 2008, para 85. Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, mission to Mexico (E/CN.4/2006/61/Add.4), 2006, para. 69(c)(v). FAO, IFAD, ILO, (2010) Gender Dimensions of Agricultural and Rural Employment: Differentiated Pathways out of Poverty, Status, Trends and Gaps, Rome. Submission by IOM. 17