A/HRC/43/46 19. In its study on extremism in Africa, UNDP showed that, whereas 51 per cent of people interviewed cited religious grounds as a reason for joining violent extremist groups, as many as 57 per cent also admitted to having limited or no understanding of religious texts. Instead, the empirical data revealed that governance challenges were key drivers of extremism. In particular, the role of the State as a push factor to violent extremism was noted by 71 per cent of respondents, who identified “government action” as being the critical event that finally pushed them to join a violent extremist group. The results also revealed that recruitment was a highly localized process and that the path to extremism was highly personal. Other studies also confirm the significance of individual psychology as an essential component in the turn to extremism, as is a loss of trust in politicians and the political system and security agencies’ repressive approaches.38 Notably, weak and fragile States, incapable of projecting power and asserting authority within their own borders, can also be factors leading to the proliferation of violent extremism, creating ungoverned spaces exploited by violent extremist groups. 39 The Special Rapporteur notes the extensive literature on policy and practice on fragile States and the lack of the application thereof to the analysis and policy being rolled out in the context of preventing and countering violent extremism. 40 20. The link with international jihadism is more tenuous on the ground than the global rhetoric suggests. Study after study reveals that the experience or perception of abuse and violations by government authorities are determining factors that contribute to the level of vulnerability to violent extremism, or resilience thereto. In addition, separatist movements and protracted conflicts are central factors to be addressed when examining violent extremism in multiple contexts. 41 The failure of policymakers to take into account the decades of knowledge and data on local political grievances, underlying drivers of conflict, long-term structural instability and political tensions over resource allocation is unforgivable, given the stakes involved. The UNDP conceptual framework highlights eight drivers that can result in violent extremist action: (a) the impact of global politics; (b) economic exclusion and limited opportunities for upward mobility; (c) political exclusion and shrinking civic space; (d) inequality, injustice, corruption and the violation of human rights; (e) disenchantment with socioeconomic and political systems; (f) rejection of growing diversity in society; (g) weak State capacity and failing security; and (h) a changing global culture and the banalization of violence in the media and entertainment. 42 21. Those findings should inform strategies, policies and programmes to ensure that they are effective, not based on overly simplistic generalizations and stereotypes and not counterproductive or stigmatizing. The key findings highlighted above show that successful programmes should focus on building the resilience of communities and drawing attention to the counter-productive impacts of security-driven strategies to respond to violent extremism and to the lack of respect for human rights. They underscore the importance of restoring trust between marginalized communities and their Governments, prioritizing State accountability, including for corruption, and in particular that of the security sector, governance and justice and creating conditions in which individuals who are marginalized can thrive. 22. The Special Rapporteur generally finds however that programmes, policies and measures do not draw from those findings. Just as studies disprove the idea that poverty or poor economic circumstances in themselves are conditions conducive to terrorism, 43 many measures and programmes tend to place a narrow emphasis on individuals from dire socioeconomic backgrounds, at the expense of recognizing that the effects of relative 38 39 40 41 42 43 8 Anneli Botha, “Radicalization to terrorism in Kenya and Uganda: a political socialization perspective”, Perspectives on Terrorism, vol. 9, No. 5. UNDP, “Root causes of radicalization in Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States”, discussion paper, July 2015. See www.politicalsettlements.org. International Alert, “If victims become perpetrators”, 2018; UNDP, “Root causes of radicalization”; and UNDP, “Journey to extremism in Africa”. UNDP, “Preventing violent extremism through promoting inclusive development, tolerance and respect for diversity: a development response to addressing radicalization and violent extremism”, 2016. Anneli Botha, “Radicalization to terrorism”.