A/HRC/42/CRP.1 against such violence afforded by the criminal justice system has collapsed further in 2019. Some law enforcement actors, armed forces and armed groups pose a direct threat to women’s security, and the parties actively obstructed protection networks in key areas. 617. This situation has had severe short-term consequences on the fundamental rights of women, girls, boys and men, particularly on those struggling with multiple intersecting forms of discrimination and vulnerabilities. These rights include the rights to life, survival and development; protection from violence, injury and abuse, including sexual violence; liberty and security of person; and the rights to health, food and education. Such rights are guaranteed under international human rights law, including the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), to which Yemen and all members of the coalition except Sudan are parties. Moreover, violations of these rights are likely to have a long-term legacy of entrenching inequality, discrimination, and gender-based violence. Protections are also to be found under international humanitarian law, including customary international law. 2. The status of women and girls in Yemen 618. Prior to the conflict, women and girls were already living in an impoverished and unequal society. Yemen ranks worst in the world out of all countries in the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Gender Inequality Index and the WEF Global Gender Gap Index, composite measures of women and girls’ rights to health and education, economic and political participation, and protection from gender-based violence.947 The UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) shows that Yemen is one of the most extremely impoverished countries in the world. Disaggregated for gender, it shows the differences between men and women to be the most unequal of any country, and furthermore that the impact of the war on the life expectancy, education and standard of living for women is almost twice as much as that for men.948 International Labour Organisation (ILO) surveys from 2014 show that only 6 per cent of women versus 65 per cent of men were participating in the labour workforce, mainly in agriculture and were paid significantly less, with many other women in rural areas involved in subsistence farming and food preparation and playing a key role in nutrition.949 619. Yemeni statutory law reinforces the subordinate role of women and girls in the society. The Personal Status Law of 1992 provides that male relatives have guardianship (“Wilaya”) rights over a woman for the entirety of her life. It also provides that a husband is the legal head of the household, and has the right to be obeyed by his wife; that he should always have ‘access’ to her and she permits him to have intercourse with her; and that she refrain from disobedience, and that her primary role in society is in household work. Women should only travel outside the home for ‘legitimate reasons’ such as domestic and caregiver responsibilities, and with a ‘mahram,’950 or male guardian, accompanying her. Polygamy for men of up to four wives is legalised, there is no minimum age for marriage, fathers are the only legal guardians of children, and rights of divorce for women are limited.951 The Penal Code provides that the testimony of women is worth half that of men; men receive reduced sentences for murdering female relatives if motivated by restoring ‘honour’; ‘immorality’ such as movement without a male guardian or association with men 947 United Nations, United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Global Inequality Index, 2019. World Economic Forum “The Global Gender Gap Report”, 2018. 948 UNDP Assessing the Impact of the War on Development in Yemen, 2019, Page 26, 41-42. UNDP, Human Development Index, available at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-indexhdi. 949 United Nations, International Labour Organisation (ILO) Yemen Labour Force Survey, 2014. CARE “Rapid Gender Analysis of Yemen”, 2015. 950 A male relative with whom marriage and sexual intercourse is forbidden by Sharia law; the term also refers to a woman’s husband. 951 Personal Status Law of Yemen, 1992. UNDP “Yemen: Laws, policies and practices on Gender Justice”, 2018. Douaa Hussein, The American University Cairo “Legal Reform as a way to Women’s Rights: The Case of Personal Status Law in Yemen”, 2011. 148