A/HRC/21/50 22. The Government increasingly deployed its troops and heavy equipment in operations against areas perceived to be supporting opposition groups. All army divisions and security services engaged in military operations. Typically, such operations began with the cordoning off of a targeted area with checkpoints, then shelling as a prelude to incursions by ground forces to dislodge insurgents and their supporters. Shelling was also used in the context of direct clashes and in operations to quell demonstrations. Air assets also fired on fighters and unarmed demonstrators in localities under the influence of armed groups. 23. Government forces directed their main efforts towards the control of major cities such as Damascus, Aleppo, Homs and Hama. Attacks on areas allegedly infiltrated by antiGovernment armed groups had the unintended effect of increasing the support of local populations for those groups. During many operations, large numbers of fighters and civilians were killed. 24. Pro-Government militia, including Shabbiha, reportedly acted alongside Government forces in security and military operations. Their precise nature, strength and relationship with the Government remains unclear. 25. The army faced increased attrition in personnel and equipment owing to combat operations, defections and casualties. Defections affected the troops psychologically, fuelling a crisis of confidence within the ranks and encouraging further defections. The Government also had difficulties in drafting new recruits, as many of those called up for mandatory military service refused to report. 26. Anti-Government armed groups expanded their activities throughout the country, clashing with Government forces on multiple fronts simultaneously. At the time of writing, they were involved in sustained armed confrontations inside the capital, while establishing sanctuaries throughout the rest of the country. Accounts indicated that there were foreign fighters in the ranks of some armed groups. 27. The FSA took measures to address the apparent deficiencies in its overall effective command structure. In some governorates, the FSA created local military councils that claimed leadership over groups fighting in those areas. Many groups claimed affiliation with the FSA, while other groups are emerging without a pronounced affiliation with it. 28. Anti-Government armed groups engaged with the Government forces through direct clashes, ambushes and raids. While investigations did not confirm the use of more sophisticated weaponry by anti-Government armed groups, their access to and capacity to effectively use available weapons improved. They appeared to have access to increased funding and logistical support. 29. The commission noted the increased and effective use of improvised explosive devices against the convoys, patrols and facilities of Government forces. They were also used to target members of military and security forces and Government officials. 30. Several radical Islamic armed groups have emerged in the country. The most important is the Al-Nusrah Front for the People of the Levant, a group allegedly linked with Al-Qaida, which claimed responsibility for several attacks, including suicide bombings against Government forces and senior officials. 31. There are also self-defence groups in several localities. Some of these groups emerged in villages populated by allegedly pro-Government minorities. 8