A/HRC/19/59 overweight or obesity, women are particularly at risk because their incomes are on average lower than those of men, and because men in the low-income group often are employed on tasks that are physically demanding and require large expenses of energy. Overweight or obese women tend to give birth to children who themselves tend to be overweight or obese, resulting in lower productivity and discrimination. Thus, socio-economic disadvantage is perpetuated across generations by the channel of overweight or obesity. 56 3. Marketing of foods and beverages 36. Significant concerns are expressed today about the marketing practices of the agrifood industry, particularly as regards marketing to children. The range of practices is wide: they include television advertising, product placement, promotional partnerships, sales promotions, and direct marketing in schools, among others. Most advertisements promote unhealthy foods, high in total energy, sugars and fats, and low in nutrients. A recent study covering television advertising in Australia, Asia, Western Europe, and North and South America, found that in all sampled countries, children were exposed to high volumes of television advertising for unhealthy foods, featuring child-oriented persuasive techniques, leading the authors to call for regulation of food advertising during children‘s peak viewing times.57 The ability of these marketing practices to change consumer behaviour is remarkable in developing countries, in part because brands of North-based global companies carry positive connotations. 58 B. Reshaping agrifood systems 37. Governments have become aware of the adverse impacts of the spread of noncommunicable diseases, caused by suboptimal breastfeeding and young child feeding and unhealthy diets, and they recognize the urgent need to take action. In 2002 and 2004, respectively, WHA adopted the Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding and the Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health. The latter recommends, inter alia, reducing energy intake from total fats, shifting fat consumption away from saturated fats to unsaturated fats, and eliminating trans-fatty acids; increasing the consumption of fruits and vegetables, legumes, whole grains and nuts; limiting the intake of free sugars; limiting salt consumption and ensuring that all salt is iodized. 59 States are encouraged to adopt a national strategy on diets and physical activity; to provide accurate and balanced information to consumers; to align food and agricultural policies with the requirements of public health; and to use school policies and programmes to encourage healthy diets. Infant food manufacturers are expected to comply with provisions of the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes and subsequent relevant WHA resolutions and manufacture their products according to Codex Alimentarius standards. The agrifood industry is expected to reduce the fat, sugar and salt content of processed foods and portion sizes, to increase nutritious and healthy choices, and to review their marketing practices. More recently, in 2011, Governments pledged to promote, protect and support breastfeeding and strengthen the implementation of the International Code and to ―reduce the impact of the common non-communicable disease risk factors,‖ including unhealthy 56 57 58 59 16 F. Sassi, Obesity and the Economics of Prevention: Fit Not Fat (OECD, 2010), pp. 83-84. B. Kelly and others, ―Television food advertising to children: a global perspective,‖ American Journal of Public Health, vol. 100, No. 9 (2010), pp. 1730-1736. WHO, Marketing of Food and Non-Alcoholic Beverages to Children: Report of a WHO Forum and Technical Meeting, Oslo, 2-5 May 2006, p. 10. WHA resolution 57.17, annex, para. 22.