A/HRC/22/72 of gender,87 and the composition of households. In joint family systems where several generations live together or in households where the husband’s kinship assumes the control of resources in his absence, it is more difficult to establish the actual household headship. 60. Widow heads of household are identified as particularly vulnerable to poverty. 88 They have fewer productive assets, less savings and they are less likely to have pension income for which reason they depend on the support of their sons. 89 Single mothers tend to bear the responsibility of caring for the family dependants which severely diminishes their income. Although unmarried mothers in Peru live in precarious conditions due to unequal power relations and resource allocation within the household, these women have been excluded from cash-transfer programmes because the overall economic condition of the household the women belonged to exceeded the income threshold. 90 Female-headed households have a higher rate of dependency than households headed by men.91 61. When determining the costs of household maintenance, the calculus should not only focus on the number of dependants, but it should also take into consideration small economies of scale as larger households may produce more goods at lower costs.92 In addition, studies comparing the economic condition of female-headed households with that of male-headed households disregard the investigation of the relative welfare of women in male-headed households and conversely, of men in female-headed households.93 62. While rural women are more numerous than men among the population living in poverty, this may, in turn, not always lead to the situation that female-headed households are poorer than male-headed households. A study conducted by FAO in 20 countries indicates that the condition of poverty of rural women is passed on to the household. 94 Further research indicates that results depend on a number of factors, such as the domestic context, the type of female-headed household, the choice and use of equivalence scales and the consideration for the economies of scale. 95 63. The factors that determine women’s precarious condition contribute to their vulnerability to poverty because women lack the means to cope with risks. 96 The poverty status of households usually varies over time. However, there are also situations where the status of poverty of certain households is permanent.97 64. The Committee on the Rights of the Child recommended that female-headed households be ensured adequate availability and accessibility to welfare programs, alternative care facilities and early child-care services.98 The standard of living of femaleheaded households can be improved by allowing women access to employment, housing, 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 16 Ibid. World Bank, Engendering Development through Gender equality in Rights, Resources and Voice, 2001. S. Klasen, T. Lechtenfeld, F. Povel, What About the Women? Female Headship, Poverty and Vulnerability in Thailand and Vietnam, 2011, p. 7. R. Holmes, N. Jones, note 40 above, p. 6. S. Chant, note 83 above, p. 14. S. Klasen et al, note 89 above, p. 7. WB, note 88 above, 2001. FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2010, pp. 2223. S. Klasen, T. Lechtenfeld, F. Povel, see note 81 above, p. 6; S. Chant, Female Household Headship and the Feminization of Poverty: Facts, Fictions and Forward Strategies, New Working Paper Series 9, LSE Gender Institute. Ibid., p. 9. The Chronic Poverty Report 2004/05, Institute for Development Policy and Management, University of Manchester. CRC, concluding observations, Palau (CRC/C/15/Add.149), 2001, para. 38.