A/HRC/14/39 other forms of discrimination on the basis of sex that may occur in practice at the local level and in the private sphere,48 for example, limits on women’s access to nutrition and food, clean water and sanitation, and education, limits which in turn can increase risks of preventable maternal mortality and morbidity.49 Non-discrimination on other grounds: addressing intersectional and multiple forms of discrimination 19. Specific groups of women face higher levels of risk of preventable maternal mortality and morbidity. The risk of death or injury due to pregnancy-related causes can depend upon various grounds, including race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.50 Where a person faces discrimination on the basis of more than one of the prohibited grounds (i.e. on the basis of sex and another ground), they are facing cumulative, multiple or intersectional discrimination, which can have a substantially heightened effect on their ability to exercise and enjoy their human rights.51 20. The elevated risk that a woman may face due to multiple discriminations is often tied to a heightened inability to access adequate health-care systems and timely interventions and services, although the reasons for this inability may differ. For example, laws or social practices may place age limits, or restrictions related to marital status, on access to sexual and reproductive health care, services and information. Meanwhile for reasons of distance, cost and lack of information or lack of cultural sensitivity, women living in rural areas, indigenous women,52 displaced persons/refugees, girls, or women of lower social and economic status may not have sufficient access to antenatal services, emergency obstetric care and skilled birth attendants. Furthermore, they may be reluctant to access health care because of language barriers or insensitivity to indigenous practices and traditions. The risk of death and disability from pregnancy-related causes increases even further for women who fall into more than one such category. 21. The human rights requirements of equality and non-discrimination require States to ensure that the steps they take to give effect to the human rights of women and address the specific needs of women are meaningful to all women in society. These human rights further require measures that enable relevant stakeholders to identify and address the reasons behind certain women’s heightened inability to access adequate and timely healthcare interventions and services. Such measures include monitoring and assessment on the basis of disaggregated data, policy assessment and review, and legal reform as appropriate. 48 49 50 51 52 10 UNECA, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIFEM, WHO) (Geneva, 2008), p. 11. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art. 2 (d); CESCR, general comment No. 20, para. 11; Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31: The nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant (2004), para. 8. UN Millennium Project 2005, Taking Action, p. 56. Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 18, para. 1, and general comment No. 28, para. 30; CESCR, general comment No. 16, para. 5, and general comment No. 20, paras. 18–35; CEDAW, general recommendation No. 24, para. 26, and general recommendation No. 25, para. 12. CEDAW, general recommendation No. 25, para. 12; CESCR, general comment No. 16, para. 5, and general comment No. 20, para. 17; Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 28, para. 30; CERD, general comment No. 25: Gender-related dimensions of racial discrimination (2000), para. 1; Durban Declaration (preamble, para. 69) and Programme of Action (paras. 18, 31, 50, 54 (a), 176), adopted at the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, 2001. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to health (A/59/422), para. 55; A/61/338, para. 7; Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, 2006, Supplement No. 23 (E/2006/43E/C.19/2006/11), paras. 48–49. GE.10-12949