A/HRC/33/53 46. Although some Governments in Latin America have participated in special training sessions and workshops on childhood, migration and human rights, most migration officers have no personnel assigned exclusively to work with unaccompanied migrant children. There is almost no local authority or institution in the region that works specifically on that topic. Despite the fact that legal frameworks to protect migrants and children are well developed, there are no laws on unaccompanied migrant children as a specific category. Some countries, including Nicaragua, have no migration policy at all, which means that responses tend to be instrumental, short-term and uncoordinated.31 47. In South America, internal migration in Paraguay constitutes a special case. Children are constantly displaced from rural areas to cities in order to be trafficked for labour exploitation. This practice, commonly referred to as “criadazgo”, is widespread in Paraguay and is organized by contractors who pretend to provide protection. Children become involved in domestic work without any financial compensation, in exchange for shelter, food, clothing and education. According to the findings of the Permanent Household Survey, it is estimated that 46,993 children and adolescents (2.5 per cent of all children in the country) are in a situation of “criadazgo”. Furthermore, authorities have perceived a strong social legitimization and normalization of the practice.32 48. In Asia, the labour laws of countries such as India and Nepal allow the exploitation of child workers by defining 14 years as the beginning of adulthood. Caritas Bangladesh has reported that employers of children rarely consider the compensation they provide to child workers or their families as the fulfilment of duties to the children, nor do they see children as rights holders entitled to the right to fair treatment and compensation. 49. In India, which has the world’s largest population of children, the migration of children within states and across state boundaries is increasing. Gender-related issues are common causes of migration and human rights violations; in India, the main cause of migration is gender-based discrimination and the low status of women in society, which results in child marriage, a decline in the ratio of women to men and a division of labour along traditional gender roles. Migrant girls are increasingly forced, as service providers, to fulfil the demand for a vast array of personalized services in the entertainment and sex industry, in domestic work and in the marriage market.33 50. In South Africa, the number of irregular migrants is difficult to determine; estimates range between 2.5 million and 7 million. According to IOM, every week about 2,000 irregular migrants, mainly from Mozambique and Zimbabwe, are deported. Some 20 per cent of them are children. These figures indicate that about 1.6 million migrant children stay in Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. 51. According to the UNICEF Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Analysis Report 2014, the crisis in South Sudan has led almost half a million people to move. Over 70 per cent of those people are children who then seek asylum in neighbouring countries like Ethiopia, Kenya, the Sudan and Uganda. An estimated 35,000 are unaccompanied children. 52. Children transiting through Zimbabwe lack access to many social services. Once the children are outside the family environment they are often left by themselves and may be exposed to hard living conditions. That said, the reception conditions have improved in recent years as child reception centres have been set up by IOM, UNICEF and the 31 32 33 10 Information provided by Aldeas Infantiles SOS, Nicaragua. Information provided by Grupo Luna Nueva. As the ratio of females to males in India continues to decline, young girls are trafficked into the countryside and sold into marriage.