A/HRC/26/31 palatability, and due to aggressive marketing, they have replaced healthier foods in diets.9 This is a particularly worrying trend for low- and middle-income countries, as the rate of consumption of unhealthy foods for such countries is projected to outpace high-income countries.10 While excess calories consumed from unhealthy foods may be expended through physical activity, the shift in technology from labour-intensive to service-oriented occupations and changes in modes of transportation have resulted in sedentary lifestyles and thereby reduced physical activity and energy expenditure.11 4. The processes of globalization, in particular trade and FDI in food processing, retailing, and food advertising and promotion, have been increasingly associated with driving shifts in dietary patterns towards those closely linked with NCDs.12 This is also demonstrated in the increasing presence of transnational food and beverage companies in a number of countries, particularly developing countries, and their pervasive marketing of unhealthy foods.13 While public policy responses are critical to addressing unhealthy diets by focusing on population-wide responses that alter purchasing and consumption patterns, there has been much less emphasis on addressing structural changes to the food system that largely affect people’s diets.14 II. Impact of globalization on food systems 5. The policies of globalization have played an important role in increasing the free flow of unhealthy foods between countries. Changes in the food system are now largely driven by transnational corporations (TNCs), including food and beverage companies and supermarket chains, which have altered diets from traditional and minimally processed foods to ultraprocessed ones. In fact, 75 per cent of the world’s food sales constitute processed foods, whose largest manufacturers control more than one third of the global market.15 TNCs have therefore been a critical link in the transition from minimally processed to ultraprocessed foods. They also greatly influence the sale and consumption of unhealthy foods in comparison to promoting the availability and affordability of healthy foods within the food system.16 6. Industrial technology has contributed to the dominance of TNCs in the modern food system. The use of agrochemicals and hybrid seeds in farming and extraction technology in food processing have allowed for large-scale food production at substantially lower costs.17 The addition of high amounts of salts, saturated- and trans-fats to ultraprocessed foods have 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Ibid., pp. 671–672. David Stuckler et al., “Manufacturing epidemics: the role of global producers in increased consumption of unhealthy commodities including processed foods, alcohol and tobacco”, PLOS Medicine, vol. 9, No. 6 (2012), p. 2. Barry M. Popkin, “Global nutrition dynamics: the world is shifting rapidly toward a diet linked with noncommunicable diseases”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 84, No. 2 (2006), pp. 289– 298. Corinna Hawkes, “Uneven dietary development: linking the policies and processes of globalization with the nutrition transition, obesity and diet-related chronic diseases”, Globalization and Health, vol. 2, No. 4 (2006). Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2010 (see footnote 5 above), Chapter 2, NCDs and Development, p. 33. Sharon Friel et al., “Measuring progress on diet-related NCDs: the need to address the causes of the causes”, The Lancet , vol. 381, No. 9870 (2013), pp. 903–904. “Profits and pandemics” (see footnote 8 above), pp. 671–672. “Manufacturing epidemics” (see footnote 10 above), pp. 1–2. Tim Lang, “Food industrialisation and food power: implications for food governance”, Gatekeeper Series No. 114 (International Institute for Environment and Development, 2004), pp. 4–5. 5