Sexual and gender-based violence in Myanmar and the gendered impact of its ethnic conflicts in English government control where international actors have had no access since June 2016. 121 Women and children make up 76 per cent and 78 per cent of the displaced populations in camps in Kachin and Shan States, respectively.122 63. In Kachin, the ratio of girls to boys attending primary level education is 0.95 of the gender parity index.123 Overall half of both boys and girls do not complete primary level education in Kachin State.124 Reportedly, there is a higher drop-out rate for boys at primary level education as boys are often encouraged to seek work as family breadwinners, due to their gender roles within families.125 In Shan, the ratio of girls to boys is 1.04. However the overall school attendance is low compared to the national average.126 Despite near gender parity in school attendance in Shan State, it has the lowest female literacy rate among young women nationwide at 59.4 per cent compared to 89.5 per cent for men. 127 In Kachin and Shan States, education is often limited in non-government controlled areas, forcing children to travel to government controlled areas and sleeping in mixed dormitories, exposing girls to risks. There is also a shortage of female teachers in non-government controlled areas limiting opportunities for gender inclusive education in these areas. 128 64. Ethnic women and girls in Kachin and Shan States, face challenges in accessing healthcare. Government healthcare is perceived as unreliable 129 since services are offered in Myanmar language often not understood by ethnic women and children in northern Myanmar.130 In addition, heath facilities in IDP camps are limited and further places constraints on women and girls in accessing health care and services. Moreover, women and girls face additional barriers in accessing reproductive and sexual health, as male community leaders actively discourage women from using contraceptives. 131 In addition, contraceptives are often unavailable in non-government controlled areas.132 65. The lack of economic opportunities manifests itself in Kachin and Shan along gendered lines, with women in Kachin overall having a low labour force participation rate at only 45.9 per cent in comparison to 85.7 per cent for men. 133 Kachin and Shan are two of the four poorest States in Myanmar.134 The feminization of poverty is further compounded by the high prevalence of female-headed households, coupled with the discriminatory social customs denying their right to access, inherit or own land in many of these ethnic communities.135 Prevailing insecurity and poverty have exposed women and girls to 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 A/HRC/39/CRP.2, para. 295-305; Gender Profile for Humanitarian Action, and across the Humanitarian-Peace-Development Nexus (Rakhine, Kachin and Northern Shan Myanmar) January 2019. Ibid. Ministry of Education (2014). Gender Profile for Humanitarian Action, and across the Humanitarian-Peace-Development Nexus (Rakhine, Kachin and Northern Shan Myanmar) January 2019. Ibid. Myanmar Gender Situation Analysis (2016) Asian Development Bank, UNDP, UNFPA, UN Women. Ibid. Gender Profile for Humanitarian Action, and across the Humanitarian-Peace-Development Nexus (Rakhine, Kachin and Northern Shan Myanmar) January 2019. Ibid. A/HRC/39/CRP.2, para. 112. Gender Profile for Humanitarian Action, and across the Humanitarian-Peace-Development Nexus (Rakhine, Kachin and Northern Shan Myanmar) January 2019. PM-011. Myanmar Gender Situation Analysis (2016) Asian Development Bank, UNDP, UNFPA, UN Women. Ibid. Men and women have equal rights to inherit and own land under Myanmar Law. However, the cultural norm is that they have distinct but complementary roles in society, which ultimately impact land ownership. Namati, Gendered Aspects of Land Rights in Myanmar II: Evidence from Paralegal Case Work (June 2019).; Gender Profile for Humanitarian Action, and across the HumanitarianPeace-Development Nexus (Rakhine, Kachin and Northern Shan Myanmar) January 2019; Woods, Kevin. “A Political Anatomy of Land Grabs.” Transnational Institute, March 2014; Faxon, Hilary. “The Praxis of Access: Gender in Myanmar’s Land Use Policy.” Conference Paper No. 17, Chiang Mai University, May 2015, pp.7-8. 17