A/HRC/40/55 41. Black carbon is formed by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels and biomass. It is a significant source of particulate matter and also contributes to climate change. In addition, when deposited on snow and ice (e.g. snowfields and glaciers), black carbon accelerates melting, contributing to natural disasters and water insecurity. This is a significant problem in mountain regions, such as the Andes and the Himalayas. 42. The overlap between air pollution and climate change has a silver lining. Welldesigned laws, standards, policies and programmes can simultaneously reduce the emissions contributing to air pollution and climate change, producing a double dividend. 19 Improving air quality produces largely short-term and local benefits, whereas the positive effects of climate mitigation are long-term and global. Overall, the economic benefits are substantially larger than the costs of reducing emissions. 20 However, in some countries lack of capacity, inadequate human and financial resources, poor governance and weak rule of law are obstacles to implementing known solutions. 43. It is imperative that air quality solutions be implemented in systemic fashion, integrated with climate policy and the Sustainable Development Goals. For example, mistakes were made in earlier efforts to address climate change without adequately considering air quality. In a number of European countries, economic incentives encouraged the purchase of diesel vehicles in an effort to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. However, the climate mitigation benefits were outweighed by an increase in nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, resulting in an increase in premature deaths and preventable illnesses.21 III. Effects of air pollution on the enjoyment of human rights 44. Poor air quality has implications for a wide range of human rights, including the rights to life, health, water, food, housing and an adequate standard of living. Air pollution also clearly violates the right to a healthy and sustainable environment. While the General Assembly has adopted numerous resolutions on the right to clean water, it has never adopted a resolution on the right to clean air. Surely if there is a human right to clean water, there must be a human right to clean air. Both are essential to life, health, dignity and wellbeing. The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights stated at the First Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health, held in 2018, that “there can be no doubt that all human beings are entitled to breathe clean air”. 45. Obligations related to clean air are implicit in a number of international human rights instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (right to adequate standard of living), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (right to life) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (right to health). Damage to crops inflicted by air pollution threatens the right to food, while contamination of aquatic ecosystems by airborne contaminants (e.g. mercury) jeopardizes both the right to food and the right to water. 46. In 2000, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights called on States to formulate national policies with the objective of reducing and eliminating air pollution. 22 The High Commissioner for Human Rights (A/HRC/19/34 and Corr.1) and the Human Rights Council (resolution 35/24) have stressed the importance of addressing air pollution. The impacts of air pollution on human rights have been acknowledged repeatedly as part of 19 20 21 22 8 V. Ramanathan and others, Well Under 2 Degrees Celsius: Fast Action Policies to Protect People and the Planet from Extreme Climate Change, report of the Committee to Prevent Extreme Climate Change (2017). D. Shindell and others, “Quantified, localized health benefits of accelerated carbon dioxide emissions reductions”, Nature Climate Change, vol. 8, No. 4 (April 2018), pp. 291–295. E. Mazzi and H. Dowlatabadi, “Air quality impacts of climate mitigation: UK policy and passenger vehicle choice”, Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 41, No. 2 (15 January 2007), pp. 387– 392. General comment No. 14 (2000) on the right to the highest attainable standard of health.