A/HRC/10/61 page 15 a duty to take positive action, individually and jointly, to address and avert this threat. Equally, States have an obligation to take action to avert climate change impacts which threaten the cultural and social identity of indigenous peoples. C. Effects on specific groups 42. The effects of climate change will be felt most acutely by those segments of the population who are already in vulnerable situations due to factors such as poverty, gender, age, minority status, and disability.62 Under international human rights law, States are legally bound to address such vulnerabilities in accordance with the principle of equality and non-discrimination. 43. Vulnerability and impact assessments in the context of climate change largely focus on impacts on economic sectors, such as health and water, rather than on the vulnerabilities of specific segments of the population.63 Submissions to this report and other studies indicate awareness of the need for more detailed assessments at the country level and point to some of the factors which affect individuals and communities. 44. The present section focuses on factors determining vulnerability to climate change for women, children and indigenous peoples. 1. Women 45. Women are especially exposed to climate change-related risks due to existing gender discrimination, inequality and inhibiting gender roles. It is established that women, particularly elderly women and girls, are affected more severely and are more at risk during all phases of weather-related disasters: risk preparedness, warning communication and response, social and economic impacts, recovery and reconstruction.64 The death rate of women is markedly higher than that of men during natural disasters (often linked to reasons such as: women are more likely to be looking after children, to be wearing clothes which inhibit movement and are less likely to be able to swim). This is particularly the case in disaster-affected societies in which the socio-economic status of women is low.65 Women are susceptible to gender-based violence 62 See e.g. IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 374. 63 National communications, submitted according to arts. 4 and 12 of UNFCCC, make frequent references to the human impacts of climate change, but generally do so in an aggregate and general manner, mentioning for example that people living in poverty are particularly vulnerable. 64 IPCC AR4 WGII, p. 398. See also submission by the United Nations Development Fund for Women available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/climatechange/index.htm. 65 E. Neumayer and T. Plümper, The Gendered Nature of Natural Disasters: The Impact of Catastrophic Events on the Gender Gap in Life Expectancy, 1981-2002, available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=874965. As the authors conclude, based on the study of disasters in 141 countries, “[a] systematic effect on the gender gap in life expectancy is only plausible if natural disasters exacerbate previously existing patterns of discrimination that render females more vulnerable to the fatal impact of disasters” (p. 27).