A/HRC/24/23 6. Some of the most dangerous countries for journalists are those that are or have been in situations of armed conflict.6 Indeed, since 1992, 185 journalists have been killed in such situations.7 The very large majority of violence and attacks against journalists occur, however, outside armed conflict. Moreover, while the death or injury of foreign journalists often captures the attention of the international community, most of those who are victims of threats and attacks are local journalists covering local issues. One organization estimated that, since 1992, 88 per cent of the journalists who have been killed worldwide were local. 3 Furthermore, approximately 42 per cent of the journalists killed were reporting on political issues, 35 per cent on war, 20 per cent on corruption, 16 per cent on human rights and 15 per cent on crime. 7. Impunity for attacks against journalists is a serious and pervasive problem, and it is one – if not the main – challenge to strengthening the protection of journalists. 8 For example, there is near total impunity in cases of violations of the right to life of journalists. According to one source, perpetrators go unpunished in nine out of 10 cases; at 16 May 2013, those responsible for the murder of 594 journalists in countries around the world since 1992 had not been held accountable.9 8. In many countries, the offences of slander, libel and defamation are treated as criminal offences. The existence and use of such criminal laws against journalists and other media professionals deters reporting on issues of public interest. 10 The conviction of journalists for such offences often results in imprisonment, heavy fines or the suspension of media licenses, which in turn deter criticism of public figures and can significantly compound a climate of intimidation.11 The impact of counter-terrorism legislation on journalists and other media professionals raises concern, given that the use of broader police and intelligence service powers for combating terrorism are also used to unduly restrict freedom of expression.15 9. The Internet and other digital media sources have become an essential medium for disseminating news. There is an increasing number of “online journalists”, both professionals and “citizen journalists”, who are untrained yet still play an important role in documenting and disseminating information. 12 In its general comment No. 34, the Human Rights Committee defined journalism as “a function shared by a wide range of actors, including professional full-time reporters and analysts, as well as bloggers and others who engage in forms of self-publication in print, on the Internet or elsewhere.”13 As the number of online journalists has increased, so have attacks against them, such as illegal hacking of their accounts, monitoring of their online activities, arbitrary arrest and detention, and the blocking of websites that contain information critical of the authorities. III. Applicable international law 10. International human rights law and international humanitarian law establish an array of norms and standards that provide effective normative protection to journalists and other media professionals, both in their exercise of the right of freedom of expression and from 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 See www.cpj.org/killed/. See www.cpj.org/killed/in-combat.php. See for example A/65/284, para. 28, A/HRC/14/23, para. 94 and A/HRC/20/17, para. 65. See www.cpj.org/killed/impunity.php. A/HRC/20/17, para. 79. A/HRC/4/27, para. 51. A/HRC/20/17, para. 61. See also A/65/284. CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 44. See also A/HRC/20/17, paras. 4-5, and A/HRC/20/22, para. 26.