A/HRC/9/12 page 8 16. A third kind of religious discrimination involves physical violence, which tends to take the form of isolated acts of aggression, often committed by individuals or extremist groups. In some cases, however, these individual acts are the reflection of the ideological context, particularly where other forms of discrimination are present, such as institutionalized discriminatory practices. Moreover, physical violence can lead to large-scale religious violence, in the form of massacres and pogroms. The most widespread form of violence is verbal in nature, ranging from individual insults in public places to demonization by the media. 17. These expressions of religious hatred are not mutually exclusive, but are rather the different facets of a wider phenomenon. In most settings where discrimination and religious hatred occur, each aspect of discrimination reinforces all the others, forming a vicious circle of discrimination and violence that, when it attains a certain critical mass, reinforces polarization and antagonisms, lending plausibility to apocalyptic theories of the clash of civilizations and religions. 18. This chapter summarizes the main findings of the Special Rapporteur concerning Islamophobia, anti-Semitism, Christianophobia and other forms of religious discrimination. The Special Rapporteur underlines the need to analyze the context of the increase in all forms of religious discrimination in order to fully understand the emergence of an ideological climate that is conducive to incitement to national, racial or religious hatred and that threaten the enjoyment of all human rights. A. Islamophobia 19. In his recent reports on the defamation of religions and on the situation of Arab peoples and Muslims in various parts of the world, the Special Rapporteur has noted that Islamophobia is increasing worldwide, particularly following the events of September 2001. To contribute to a clearer understanding of Islamophobia, the Special Rapporteur has proposed the following definition: “This term refers to a baseless hostility and fear vis-à-vis Islam, and as a result a fear of and aversion towards all Muslims or the majority of them. It also refers to the practical consequences of this hostility in terms of discrimination, prejudices and unequal treatment of which Muslims (individuals and communities) are victims and their exclusion from major political and social spheres. The term was invented in response to a new reality: the increasing discrimination against Muslims which has manifested itself in recent years.” (E/CN.4/2005/18/Add.4, para. 13) 20. Islamophobia is not a new phenomenon, dating as it does from Islam’s earliest contacts with other religions and cultures, in particular the encounter with the Christian world, of which the crusades represent the paroxysm. Its rise in our own time is linked to four major factors: the profound crisis of identity in the Western world consequent upon the development of a non-Western multiculturalism with a strong Muslim component; the movement of political and religious polarization linked to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict; the ideological interpretation of the geostrategic upheavals linked to the petrol crisis; and the emergence of political movements legitimizing the recourse to violence by Islam.