A/HRC/32/33 physical activity daily.33 Among adolescents, there is a correlation between participation in organized sport and an increased likelihood of meeting physical activity targets. 34 44. The benefits of sport and physical activity in relation to holistic development must also be recognized. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) has identified sport as a tool to help overcome children’s social exclusion. Children who have suffered violence and abuse are less likely to participate in organized team sport. 35 However, where efforts are made to include marginalized children, the benefits of participation in sport include changing community perceptions of the capabilities of particular groups, and creating selfempowerment by changing children’s perceptions of themselves and their abilities. 36 45. States should first respect the right to health through the avoidance of discrimination against children as regards their participation in sport and physical activity. Goods, services, facilities and information relating to sport must be equally available to all children, and be safe and appropriate to their age and ability; additionally, provision should be made for children to access separate facilities where it is unsafe for them to use adult facilities. 46. Competitive sport is notable for being one of the few remaining areas within society that has largely failed to integrate human rights standards pertaining to children. 37 In many sports, training must commence at a very early age in order for athletes to be competitive when reaching majority. Eating disorders are more prevalent in adolescents than in the general population, and are particularly prevalent among top athletes. 38 Furthermore, a drift towards professionalism in competitive sport has been associated with compromises of the rights of child athletes, ranging from physical and emotional abuse through to doping, sexual violence and even the trafficking of child and adolescent athletes.39 The true extent of these problems is unknown, due to challenges in data collection and insufficient research. 47. States should take steps to establish frameworks and minimum standards of care and protection for children participating in sports to protect them from the risks of abuse, overtraining and violence and should promote guidelines for healthy participation in sport at all levels for minors. They should ensure that children and adolescents have recourse to effective, safe and child-sensitive counselling, reporting and complaints mechanisms, in the event of health rights violations. Moreover, children should only engage in intensive training programmes and/or professional sport at ages when their cognitive development is sufficient for them to understand the concept and implications of competition, in order to avoid negative impacts on their early development. 48. International sporting actors must take more action to ensure that the rights of children participating in their competitions or events are protected. Presently, there are no consistent minimum age limits for competing in international adult sporting events, nor is there any coordinated action regarding the international movement of children and adolescents for participation in high-level or professional sport. Responsibility for the well33 34 35 36 37 38 39 12 WHO, Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health. Stewart Vella and others, “Associations between sports participation, adiposity and obesity-related health behaviors in Australian adolescents”, International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, vol. 10, No. 1 (October 2013). UNICEF, Protecting Children from Violence in Sport. UNICEF, “Inclusive sport”, 15 May 2015. Available from www.unicef.org/sports/23619_57597.html. Paulo David, Human Rights in Youth Sport. Marwan el Ghoch and others, “Eating disorders, physical fitness and sport performance: a systematic review”, Nutrients, vol. 5, No. 12 (2013). UNICEF, Protecting Children from Violence in Sport.