A/HRC/37/48 128. Longitudinal studies show that children exposed to maltreatment are more likely to be victims of violence later in life and to become perpetrators themselves. They are also at a greater risk of engaging in criminal behaviour, while showing a tendency to minimize the seriousness of criminal acts. 129. Advances in neuroscience are helping to piece together the complex mechanisms by which various forms of toxic stress in early childhood, including violence, translate into poor outcomes for children. While an infant’s developing brain establishes the most efficient architecture for an individual’s needs, it is also extremely sensitive to its surroundings.21 130. Research on the neuroscience of childhood maltreatment has documented the consequences of socioeconomic status as a stressor and the health-related consequences of exposure to verbal abuse. It has also examined the impact of different forms of maltreatment, such as bullying and cyberbullying, neglect, sexual violence and emotional abuse on early child development. The impact of growing up in institutions, particularly before two years of age, on long-term mental and physical health has also been examined. 131. Alterations to the brain following childhood maltreatment can lead to an increased risk of developing non-communicable diseases and mental health problems, short and longterm cognitive disabilities, deficits in social and emotional competencies, and an increased tendency to maladaptive behaviour. 132. Early childhood presents a unique window of opportunity to break the vicious cycle of violence and abuse through appropriate interventions. An increasing body of evidence points to three key dimensions of successful national strategies that contribute to this goal: (a) Legal prohibition of all violence against children, including within the home; (b) Implementation of policies to support families in their child-rearing responsibilities and to prevent child abandonment and placement in institutions; (c) Promotion of integrated and cohesive actions by relevant sectors responsible for violence prevention and response. 133. Firstly, legislation sends an important message to society about practices that are acceptable or non-negotiable, helping to shape attitudes and behaviour. The protection of children in their early years begins with the enactment of a comprehensive legal ban on all forms of violence in all settings. Today, more than 50 States have adopted such an explicit legal prohibition on the use of violence as a form of discipline, correction or punishment, including in schools and the home. 134. Secondly, public policies are not neutral to children. Investment in young children provides an important entry point to strengthen families’ nurturing and protective role, to prevent child abandonment and placement in alternative care, and to support children at risk of violence. Parenting skills programmes that go hand in hand with social protection interventions help to reduce the risk of social exclusion and deprivation, prevent family stress and tackle social norms that condone violent forms of child discipline. 135. Thirdly, violence is a multifaceted phenomenon that can be addressed only through a multidisciplinary and multi-stakeholder approach. Strong, effective cooperation is needed 21 20 The interplay between the genetic endowment of a child and its environment leads to alterations in the way genes are expressed (the study of which is known as “epigenetics”), including in the neurophysiology, cognition and behaviour of the individual; for example, neglect or absence of loving care for infants can have epigenetic effects that impair the brain's stress regulation system and affect the child's ability to tolerate and manage stress in the future.