A/HRC/43/53/Add.2 approximately 16 million tons of carbon dioxide had been injected. Studies show no evidence of leakage.21 44. Norway is considering a major multibillion-dollar carbon capture and storage pilot project involving either the cement industry or a waste incineration facility, with an investment decision anticipated in 2020 or 2021. If successful at a reasonable cost, which is a major challenge, such a project could set an important precedent globally and open the door for exporting Norwegian technology in this field. International climate and forest initiative 45. The Norwegian International Climate and Forest Initiative has an annual budget of up to 3 billion Norwegian krone (approximately $350 million) to reduce deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries, while improving the livelihoods of people living in or near these forests. 22 The initiative is led by the Ministry of Climate and Environment and the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation. Deforestation and forest degradation not only contribute to climate change, but also cause the loss of biodiversity and jeopardize the human rights of people who depend on healthy forests. 46. The Norwegian International Climate and Forest Initiative has an explicit commitment to advancing the rights of indigenous peoples and forest-dependent communities, which is a crucial element in empowering them to become effective forest stewards. Since 2016, gender equality is also explicitly addressed in projects under the Initiative. After 10 years of experience, Norway commissioned several evaluations of the Initiative and is implementing recommendations from those evaluations, such as focusing future efforts on tropical forests and in countries where progress is being made.23 In the context of efforts to protect forests, several civil society organizations raised concerns about the human rights and environmental consequences of high levels of Norwegian imports of Brazilian soy to provide feed for aquaculture, cattle and dairy. C. Clean air 47. While clean water is now globally recognized as a fundamental human right, this is not yet the case for clean air, despite the fact that air pollution kills millions of people annually, including hundreds of thousands of children under the age of 5. Clean air is one of the basic elements of the right to live in a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment (A/HRC/40/55, paras. 17 and 44–50). 48. In general, Norway has very good air quality. As recently as a few years ago, this was not the case. In 2015, a legal action was brought against Norway by the EFTA Surveillance Authority for failure to comply with air pollution limits established by the European Union. 24 The EFTA Court of Justice concluded that Norway had repeatedly exceeded limits for particulate matter, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide between 2008 and 2012, thus violating the European Union air quality law. 25 49. Today, all Norwegian cities listed in the World Health Organization (WHO) Global Ambient Air Quality Database have annual levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) – the main pollutant implicated in causing respiratory illness, cardiovascular disease, stroke and lung cancer – at or below the WHO guideline (annual mean of 10 micrograms per cubic 21 22 23 24 25 10 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, “Sleipner Fact Sheet: Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage Project”, 30 September 2016. Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, “Norway’s International Climate and Forest Initiative”. Available at https://norad.no/en/front/thematic-areas/climate-change-andenvironment/norways-international-climate-and-forest-initiative-nicfi/. Warren Olding, Norway’s International Climate and Forest Initiative: Lessons Learned and Recommendations, synthesis report (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, October 2017). Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe (Air Quality Directive). EFTA Court of Justice, EFTA Surveillance Officer v. Norway, Case E-7/15, judgment, 2 October 2015.