A/HRC/43/53 freshwater supplies, over-exploitation and the poor management of groundwater resources, and pollution in surface water.46 About 100,000 community members have already benefited from improved water quality. This project contributes to fulfilling the right to water, reduces poverty, improves health and facilitates climate change adaptation. 88. The ultimate objective is to ensure universal access to safe water and adequate sanitation. Regarding sanitation, there is some very positive news. Between 2000 and 2017, Ethiopia, India and Nepal achieved a substantial reduction – greater than 45 per cent – in the number of people relying on open defecation. The proportion of the population using at least basic sanitation services rose by more than 30 per cent between 2000 and 2017 in Cabo Verde, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Lesotho, Mauritania, the Federated States of Micronesia, Nepal and Viet Nam. 89. There has also been impressive progress in some States in access to safer drinking water. Use of basic water services rose by more than 30 per cent between 2000 and 2017 in Afghanistan, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Myanmar and Somalia.47 Rural access to basic water services in Paraguay improved rapidly, from 53 per cent in 2000 to 99 per cent in 2017. These examples of progress improve human health and well-being, and fulfil human rights.48 5. Non-toxic environments in which to live, work and play 90. Toxic substances pose a direct threat to the rights to life, health, safe food and water, adequate housing, and the right to a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment. Pollution kills at least 9 million people annually.49 The burden of toxic substances often falls most heavily on vulnerable and marginalized populations. 91. Important global treaties that prohibit, phase out or limit the use of certain toxic substances include the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, Rotterdam Convention, the Minamata Convention on Mercury and the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (including the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and associated amendments). The implementation of obligations relating to these treaties constitute good practices in realizing the right to a healthy and sustainable environment. 92. Human biomonitoring is an important good practice because it measures concentrations of toxic substances and their metabolites in bodily fluids, faeces, hair, teeth and nails. Biomonitoring data reveal levels of exposure and trends, help researchers to understand health effects and assist in developing and evaluating policies to reduce exposure. Ethical standards must be applied to protect human rights. Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Norway, Spain and the United States have national biomonitoring programmes.50 93. The European Union has a relatively strong regulatory framework for toxic substances. Its main legislation governing toxic chemicals, the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulation, adopts a hazard-based approach to chemical management. The European Union prohibits the use of carcinogens, mutagens and reproductive toxicants in cosmetics and personal care products. 94. Sweden and Norway are international leaders in chemical regulation to reduce the risk of damage to health and the environment. Sweden has developed national objectives and timelines for phasing out mercury, lead, carcinogens, mutagens, substances that harm 46 47 48 49 50 Implementing Integrated Water Resources Management in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean Small Island Developing States; see www.thegef.org/news/life-aquatic-small-islands-atlantic-indian-oceansworking-together-fight-tough-water-challenges. Progress on household drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene 2000-2017: Special focus on inequalities, UNICEF and World Health Organization, 2019. Ibid. See www.thelancet.com/commissions/pollution-and-health. Human biomonitoring: facts and figures, World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, 2015. 15