A/HRC/42/44/Add.1 39. The large number of migrants looking for employment and their conditions of social and physical marginalization and segregation in isolated informal settlements have provided a new dynamic to the old caporalato system, which is increasingly structured along national and ethnic lines. 40. The presence and operation of the caporali in agriculture, particularly in southern Italy, are one of the main causes and consequences of slavery-like practices, such as debt bondage, servitude and forced labour on farms. 41. Agriculture is often the only sector in which low-skilled workers can find employment. They often accept exploitation that may amount to slavery-like conditions as they feel they have no choice. 42. Intermediaries or caporali may be either Italian citizens or third-country nationals of the same origin as the migrant workers. Caporali who are part of organized criminal networks often control the entire process from the recruitment of individuals in their countries of origin to employment arrangements in Italy. 43. Firstly, the seasonality of agricultural work leads to temporary demand for workers, often at short notice, while the need for flexibility in the labour market leads to difficulties in matching supply and demand. Public employment centres do not address the needs of employers efficiently and, as a consequence, caporali are used to ensure that labour needs are met. 44. Secondly, the context in which the caporali operate creates the conditions for exploitation of workers, as it leads to dependency on middlemen, not only as regards access to the labour market but also to other services, such as transport in the absence of a public transportation system. Consequently, the caporali become indispensable. 45. Thirdly, value chain dynamics lay the basis for an exploitative system. The increase in large-scale retailing has led to a significant reshaping of the food sector, as major distribution chains control the majority of the agrifood market. Part of this development is also the establishment of large buying centres, consisting of various distribution groups which collectively negotiate with suppliers to obtain better contractual conditions and ensure competitiveness.17 Those dynamics increase the pressure on suppliers and consequently production is increased and both the land and the workforce are exploited more intensively. The retailers are often foreign-owned companies that impose very low prices on farmers. The lowering of prices for products leads to increased hiring of low-cost workers through caporali or middlemen and hence to exploitation. High-value products, such as wine or olives, are often produced under exploitative conditions. B. Forms and manifestations of labour exploitation in the agricultural sector in Italy 46. According to estimates, around 430,000 workers are at risk each year of being employed through caporali, of whom over 100,000 may suffer severe exploitation. The majority are migrant workers from Africa, Eastern Europe, the Balkans, India and Pakistan.18 47. There are some regional differences regarding the degree of labour exploitation and the severity of living conditions but the main issues of concern can be generalized. Labour exploitation affects European Union migrants, third-country nationals and a minority of Italian nationals. 48. In some cases, victims of labour exploitation are also victims of trafficking in persons. Women are reportedly often trafficked for sexual exploitation, while men may be trafficked for forced and exploitative labour, mainly in the agriculture and construction 17 18 8 Ibid. See “The African farm labourers’ rebellion” in European Trade Unions Institute, Hesamag #15, available from www.etui.org/Topics/Health-Safety-working-conditions/HesaMag/(offset)/all.