A/HRC/27/51 A. Human security 10. Democracy and self-determination serve the overall goal of enabling human security and human rights. The concept of “human security” is not new. It is to be found, for example, in Franklin Roosevelt’s “Four Freedoms”, notably in the concepts of “freedom from fear” and “freedom from want”.10 The United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report (1994) defined human security as “the security of people through development, not arms; through cooperation, not confrontation; through peace not war”.11 It encompasses: “first, safety from such chronic threats as hunger, disease and repression. And second … protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions in the patterns of daily life – whether in homes, in jobs or in communities. Such threats can exist at all levels of national income and development”.12 A major shift in priorities is necessary, because human security cannot be achieved for as long as governments, corporations, banks and universities continue to invest trillions in the technology of war rather than in the promotion and protection of human rights.13 As the former Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Federico Mayor, wrote in 1998, “Concepts of security must change. Until now we thought that investment in arms was the key to security. Now we know that our real enemies are poverty, ignorance, the destruction of the environment.”14 11. One of the problems with addressing military spending is the lack of an allencompassing definition. That absence allows governments to dissimulate certain expenditures by attributing them to budgets not immediately identified as military-related. Frequently, military expenditures are “secret” or concealed, thus frustrating the right of citizens to know how their taxes are being spent. Military expenditures may be allocated, not only to the Army, Navy and Air Force, but sometimes also to a department of energy,15 to “research and development”,16 “national security”, “intelligence”, “foreign relations”, etc. A definition of military expenditures must include not only procurement of weapons of all kinds, nuclear arms, conventional arms, tanks, aeroplanes, submarines and drones, but also expenditures for military exercises, bases, weapons research, testing, environmental damage, removal of land mines and explosives, personnel costs, demobilization, rehabilitation, health care of veterans, national surveillance, global espionage, and – not to be forgotten – the interest paid on debts from ongoing and past wars.17 12. Military expenditures are staggering18 and there is scant hope that disarmament negotiations will result in a significant reduction of military budgets and stop the trend to 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 See www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/fourfreedoms. See http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/255/hdr_1994_en_complete_nostats.pdf P.6. See http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/255/hdr_1994_en_complete_nostats.pdf P.23. See Colin Archer and Annette Willi, Opportunity Costs: Military Spending and the UN’s Development Agenda (Geneva, International Peace Bureau, 2012). See also Colin Archer, Warfare or Welfare. Disarmament for development in the 21st Century (Geneva, International Peace Bureau, 2005), p. 9. UNESCO International Conference of Experts, Barcelona, November 1998. See also Joseph Wronka, Human Rights and Social Policy in the 21st Century (New York, University Press of America, 1992). See http://nnsa.energy.gov/aboutus/ourprograms/defenseprograms. See also https://www.osti.gov/opennet/forms.jsp?formurl=document/press/pc26.html. Los Alamos National Laboratory, see www.lanl.gov/index.php; http://energy.gov/articles/top-10things-you-didnt-know-about-los-alamos-national-laboratory. See International Peace Bureau, “Opportunity costs: military spending and the UN’s development agenda” (Geneva, 2012), definition of military spending on p. 15. See also SIPRI definition, available from www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/milex_database/copy_of_sources_methods. See http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS. 7