A/HRC/27/29 54. Institutional factors also contribute to the underrepresentation of women in political and public life at all levels, from local to international. For example, women are still rarely appointed to senior positions in government or within trade unions or political associations, and political parties often fail to nominate or provide financial assistance to female candidates, thereby denying them genuine opportunities to be elected. The global average number of women in national parliaments is 21 per cent, there are even fewer women Heads of State or Government and women account for only 27 per cent of judges worldwide (A/HRC/23/50, paras. 19, 21 and 22). 55. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice have made a number of recommendations addressed to States and other actors including political parties, civil society, trade unions and international organizations, on the measures that they should take to overcome impediments to women’s equal public and political participation. These recommendations focus on the removal of barriers to participation, such as those resulting from violence and other types of discrimination, illiteracy, language, poverty and restrictions on women’s freedom of movement and autonomy. 56. The Committee and the Working Group have reiterated that the positive obligations to promote the equal participation of women in all fields of public and political life, including in the formulation of government policy, may extend to the adoption of temporary special measures.41 In this regard, the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice observed in its 2013 report that “[t]he use of quotas to advance women’s political representation and participation has increased in the past three decades and produced significant results when properly adapted to specific electoral and political systems” (A/HRC/23/50, para. 38). 57. States have adopted different forms of quota systems including political party and legislative quotas and reserved seats. However, if these measures are adopted in isolation and without adequate adaptation to the local context, they will usually not be sufficient to ensure equality in political and public participation.42 The positive impact of increasing women’s representation in public and political life will not be felt if women are not also empowered to actively participate in political discussions and to exercise a real influence in decision-making (A/HRC/23/50). 58. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice have also emphasized that the recruitment processes used by government authorities and political associations should be open and transparent. Both mechanisms have further recommended that measures be taken by States to ensure that political parties and trade unions do not engage in discrimination against women, and to encourage them to promote and protect women’s political and public participation rights. The importance of reliable monitoring mechanisms and the systematic collection of data on progress in achieving gender equality within public and political institutions has also been underscored.43 59. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has emphasized the obligations of States parties to adopt appropriate legislation, policies and other measures to effectively prevent, eliminate and remedy discrimination against women, 41 42 43 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, General Recommendation No. 25 (2004). Homa Hoodfar and Mona Tajali, Electoral Politics: Making Quotas Work for Women (London, Women Living under Muslim Laws, 2011). A/HRC/23/50; and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, General Recommendation No. 23. 13