A/HRC/42/CRP.1 pressured to do so to be seen as good family men, or because they would prefer to fight rather than have their children die of hunger.” Woman gender-based violence activist working with men and boys974 630. From the start of the conflict, the parties have created and supported armed groups of untrained men and boys, and then placed them in relative positions of power to carry out civilian tasks in previously demilitarized areas. These groups include the Security Belt, Shabwa Elite and Hadrami Elite forces, Government affiliated militias, and Popular Committees affiliated to the Houthis, who have replaced the civilian security sector. This, coupled with increased vulnerabilities, has increased the risk of kidnapping and sexual violence for women and girls.975 Pervasive security has curtailed women and girls’ basic freedoms, including freedom of movement, dissuading them from moving in public and encouraging women to veil where they had the freedom not to, whether of their own accord or as a rationale used by male relatives to prevent their independence.976 631. Disruption to education, poverty, mass unemployment, and increased mental health issues including depression have affected men and boys also. 977 Coupled with the reinstatement of discriminatory customs, the exacerbation of toxic masculinity and impunity, and the obstruction of awareness raising and behavioural change programs for men and boys, has increased the risk of men using domestic violence to maintain control within families to compensate for their economic disempowerment and changing gender roles. 978 Together, these factors increase the long-term risk of a future generation of men and boys predisposed to perpetuate gender-based violence and wider discrimination against women and girls. 632. Women had been employed in the security sector prior to the conflict and continue to be by both sides. In 2017-2019 the de facto authorities in Sana’a formed a new female security force, which operates with the express aim of repressing women’s political participation and perpetrating attendant violations. This female security force, referred to externally as the ‘Zeinabiyyat,’ consists of many women who have of their own agency and accord joined these forces for financial gain or personal reasons.979 Further investigation is required as to whether there are any forms of coercion or exploitation of these women.980 633. The resurgence of norms controlling sexuality together with the polarizing effect of the conflict and the targeting of those who are seen as not conforming to conservative societal norms, has contributed to the already challenging environment for people who are not heterosexual or cisgender. Discrimination against the LGTBQI+ community in Yemen predates the conflict. Under the Yemeni Penal Code, homosexuality is punishable with death. Since the advent of the conflict in 2014, homosexuals have reportedly been subjected to increased killings, threats, and sexual violence from members of the public. 981 It is not known whether the conflicting parties have directly perpetrated violence or harassment against the LGTBQI+ community; this requires further investigation. 4. Impact of the conflict on protection and criminal justice 634. Prior to the conflict, women and girls had some access to gender-based violence protection and criminal justice support due to persistent activism from local women-led community-based networks. Since 2017, the de facto authorities in Sana’a have regularly 974 Confidential Sources on File. As evidenced in the Group’s findings in the section of this chapter on gender-based violence. See also Saferworld 2017. 976 Confidential Sources on File. 977 Confidential Sources on File. Sanaa Centre for Strategic Studies “The Impact of the Conflict in Yemen on Mental Health”, 2019. 978 Confidential Sources on File. 979 Confidential Sources on File. For further details see also chapter on Life inSana’a and other areas under de facto authority control. 980 Confidential Sources on File. 981 Confidential Sources on File. http://www.ipsnews.net/2013/08/no-place-for-gays-in-yemen/. 975 152